Dentures' deep roots

Despite daily brushing, George Washington lost all but one of his teeth by the time he became president. He went through at least six sets of dentures over his lifetime, although they weren't, as legend has it, made of wood. Until the 20th century, false teeth were often made from gold, pearl or agate; hippo, walrus or elephant tusks; ox or cattle bones; or teeth pulled from cows, horses, donkeys -- or human corpses.

In the sixth century BC, the skilled craftsmen of pre-Roman Italy devised some dapper dentures, carving false teeth from ivory or bone, enameling them so that they would last, and then fastening them in place with loops of gold wire.

Their technology wasn't to be exceeded -- or even matched -- for more than 2,000 years. In the Middle Ages, most people did nothing to hide gaps in their smiles, though some nobles (Queen Elizabeth I of England among them) stuffed the holes with white cloth.

In the 1700s, Europe's new taste for sugar led to an epidemic of tooth decay. And when teeth gave people trouble, surgeons simply pulled them out. Demand for replacement teeth surged, and enterprising dentists (the profession was relatively new) revived the ancient practice of carving them from bone and ivory.

Ivory and bone teeth looked all right -- at first. But because they lacked enamel, within months they would blacken and rot, leaving the wearer with putrid breath (and, one would imagine, few friends).

Some Frenchmen experimented with porcelain instead, fashioning teeth from the fine clay found at Sèvres and Limoges. But these, too, proved far from perfect: They were brittle, difficult to size, noisy when opened and shut and, of all things, too white.

The best replacement for missing teeth, dentists soon concluded, was teeth. Animal teeth were often used (Washington's dentures included a few horse and donkey teeth). But human teeth were preferable.

In 18th century Europe and America, grave-robbers made a brisk business digging up corpses and prying out their remaining teeth, no matter how old or decrepit. Executed criminals' teeth often found their way to the market too, as did those of the desperately poor: Some, in fact, willingly had their molars and incisors extracted in exchange for a few pence.

Symbols of status

Good, strong human teeth, devoid of decay, were much easier to come by after the Battle of Waterloo.